Flora of Govind Pashu Vihar National Park and Sanctuary

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Govind Pashu Vihar National Park is situated in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand and has a rich collection of herbal plants. The low elevation of the region is covered with dense forest, especially oak, deodar, and rhododendron trees, while the higher elevation comprises mostly pastures and bushes. Different species of flowers naturally grow in the park. These flowers are useful in the survival of wildlife and thus turn the place into a natural reserve area for wildlife and a beautiful destination for everyone who loves flowers and wildlife.

Here are listed some of the existing plant species of Govind Wildlife Sanctuary:

  1. Pinus roxburghii

 Pinus roxburghii, commonly known as chir pine or longleaf Indian pine, is a species of pine, native to the Himalayas. It was named after William Roxburgh.

Range and habitat

The native range extends from Tibet and Afghanistan through Pakistan, across northern India in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh), Nepal and Bhutan, to Myanmar. It generally occurs at lower altitudes than other pines in the Himalaya, from 500-2,000 m (1,600-6,600 ft), occasionally up to 2,300 m (7,500 ft). The other Himalayan pines are Pinus wallichiana (blue pine), Pinus bhutanica (Bhutan white pine), Pinus armandii (Chinese white pine), Pinus gerardiana (chilgoza pine) and Pinus densata (Sikang pine), Pinus kesiya (Khasi Pine).

Description

Pinus roxburghii is a large tree reaching 30-50 m (98-164 ft) with a trunk diameter of up to 2 m (6.6 ft) exceptionally 3 m (10 ft). The bark is red-brown, thick and deeply fissured at the base of the trunk, thinner and flaky in the upper crown. The leaves are needle-like, in fascicles of three, very slender, 20-35 cm (7.9-13.8 in) long, and distinctly yellowish green. The cones are ovoid conic, 12-24 cm (4.79.4 in) long and 5-8 cm (2.0-3.1 in) broad at the base when closed, green at first, ripening glossy chestnut-brown when 24 months old. They open slowly over the next year or so, or after being heated by a forest fire, to release the seeds, opening to 9-18 cm (3.5-7.1 in) broad. The seeds are 8-9 mm (0.31-0.35 in) long, with a 40 mm (1.6 in) wing., and are wind- dispersed.

Uses

Chir pine is widely planted for timber in its native area, being one of the most important trees in forestry in northern Pakistan, India and Nepal. For local building purposes, the wood of this tree is the least preferred, as it is the weakest and most prone to decay when compared with other conifers. However, in most low altitude regions, there is no other choice, except for the fact that these being tropical latitudes there are other trees at lower altitudes.

When this species of pine tree reaches a large girth, the bark forms flat patches which can be broken off in chunks of about 52 cm (8 sq in) by 51 mm (2 in) thickelari, It has a layered structure like plywood, but the individual layers have no grain. The locals use this easily carvable bark to make useful items like lids for vessels. Blacksmiths of that region also use this bark exclusively as the fuel for their furnaces.

Old trees which die from fire or drought, undergo some metamorphosis in their wood due to the crystallization of the resin inside the heart wood. This makes the wood become brightly coloured (various shades from translucent yellow to dark red) and very aromatic with a brittle, glassy feel. This form of wood known as jhukti by the locals is very easy to ignite. (It never gets wet or waterlogged.) They use it for starting fires and even for lighting, as a small piece of this burns for a long time (owing to the high resin content). Of all the conifer species in the area, only this one seems to be ideal for that purpose.

Every autumn, the dried needles of this tree forms a dense carpet on the forest floor, which the locals gather in large bundles to serve as bedding for their cattle, for the year round. The green needles are also used to make tiny hand brooms.

The locals of the Jaunsar-Bawar region of Uttarakhand have several uses for this tree which is known in the local dialect as salli. It is also occasionally used as an ornamental tree, planted in parks and gardens in hot dry areas, where its heat and drought tolerance is valued.

  1. Cedrus deodara

Cedrus deodara, the deodar cedar, Himalayan cedar, or deodar/devdar/devadar/devadaru, is a species of cedar native to the western Himalayas in Eastern Afghanistan, Northern Pakistan (especially in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and india (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and, Arunachal Pradesh states and the Darjeeling Region of West Bengal), Southwestern Tibet and Western Nepal, occurring at 1,500-3,200 m (4,921-10,499 ft) altitude. It is a large evergreen coniferous tree reaching 40-50 m (131-164 ft) tall, exceptionally 60 m (197 ft) with a trunk up to 3 m (10 fi) in diameter. It has a conic crown with level branches and drooping branchileis.

The leaves are needle-like, mostly 2.5-5 cm (0.98-1.97 in) long, occasionally up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long slender (1 mm (0.039 in) thick), borne singly on long shoots, and in dense clusters of 20-30 on short shoots; they vary from bright green to giaucous blue-green in colour. The female cones are barrel- shaped, 7-13 cm (2.8-5.1 in) long and 5-9 cm (2.0-3.5 in) broad, and disintegrate when mature (in 12 months) to release the winged seeds. The male cones are 4-6 cm (1.6-2.4 in) long, and shed their pollenin autumn.

Uses

Construction material

Deodar is in great demand as building material because of its durability, rot-resistant character and fine, close grain, which is capable of taking a high polish. Its historical use to construct religious temples and in landscaping around temples is well recorded. Its rot-resistant character also makes it an ideal wood for constructing the well-known houseboats of Srinagar, Kashmir. In Pakistan and India, during the British colonial period, deodar wood was used extensively for construction of barracks, public buildings, bridges, canals and railway cars. Despite its durability, it is not a strong timber, and its brittle nature makes it unsuitable for delicate work where strength is required, such as chair-making.

Herbal Ayurveda

 C. deodara is used in Ayurvedic medicine. The inner wood is aromatic and used to make incense. Inner wood is distilled into essential oil. As insects avoid this tree, the essential oil is used as insect repellent on the feet of horses, cattle and camels. It also has antifungal properties and has some potential for control of fungal deterioration of spices during storage. The outer bark and stem are astringent

Because of its antifungal and insect repellent properties, rooms made of deodar cedar wood are used to store meat and food grains like oats and wheat in Shimla, Kullu, and Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh.

Cedar oil is often used for its aromatic properties, especially in aromatherapy. It has a characteristic woody odor which may change somewhat in the course of drying out. The crude oils are often yellowish or darker in color. Its applications cover soap perfumes, household sprays, floor polishes and insecticides and is also used in microscope work as a clearing oil.

  1. Oak

An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus (/’kw3:rkes/; Latin “oak tree”) of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks. The common name “oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus (stone oaks), as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta (silky oaks) and the Casuarinaceae (she- 0aks). The genus Quercus is native to the Northern Hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cool temperate to tropical latitudes in the Americas, Asia, Europe, and North Africa. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 ocCurring in the United States, while Mexico has 160 species of which 109 are endemic. The second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species.

Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species; some have serrated leaves or entire leaves with smooth margins. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring. In spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers (in the form of catkins) and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn or oak nut borne in a cup-like structure known as a cupule; each acorn contains one seed (rarely two or three) and takes 6-18 months to mature depending on their species. The acorns and leaves contain tannic acid, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group and instead are dispersed across the genus.

Uses

Oak wood has a density of about 0.75 g/cm (0.43 oz/cu in) creating great strength and hardness.1nE wood is very resistant to insect and fungal attack because of its high tannin content. It also has very appealing grain markings, particularly when quartersawn. Oak planking was common on high status Viking longships in the 9th and 10th centuries. The wood was hewn from green logs, by axe and wedge, to produce radial planks, similar to quarter-sawn timber. Wide, quarter-sawn boards of oak have been prized since the Middle Ages for use in interior paneling of prestigious buildings such as the debating chamber of the House of Commons in London and in the construction of fine furniture. Oak wood, from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea, was used in Europe for the construction of ships, especially naval men of war, until the 19th century, and was the principal timber used in the construction of European timber-framed buildings. Today oak wood is still commonly used for furniture making and flooring, timber frame buildings, and veneer production.

Barrels in which wines, sherry, and spirits such as brandy, Irish whiskey, Scotch whisky and Bourbon whiskey are aged are made from European and American oak, with single barrel whiskey fetching a premium. The use of oak in wine can add many different dimensions to wine based on the type and style of the oak. Oak barrels, which may be charred before use, contribute to the colour, taste, and aroma of the contents, imparting a desirable oaky vanillin flavour to these drinks. The great dilemma for wine producers is to choose between French and American oakwoods. French oaks (Quercus robur, Q. petraea) give the wine greater refinement and are chosen for the best wines since they increase the price compared to those aged in American oak wood. American oak contributes greater texture and resistance to ageing, but produces more powerful wine bouquets. Oak wood chips are used for smoking fish, meat, cheeses, and other foods.

Japanese oak is used in the making of professional drums from the manufacturer Yamaha Drums. The higher density of oak gives the drum a brighter and louder tone compared to traditional drum materials Such as maple and birch. In hill states of India, besides fuelwood and timber, the local people use oak wood for making agricultural implements. The leaves are used as fodder during lean period and bedding for livestock.

 The bark of the cork oak is used to produce winestoppers (corks). This species grows in the Mediterranean Sea region, with Portugal, Spain, Algeria, and Morocco producing most of the world’s Supply.

Of the North American oaks, the northern red oak is one of the most prized of the red oak group for lumber, much of which is marketed as red oak regardless of the species of origin. It is not good for outdoor use due to its open capillaries unless the wood is treated. If the wood is properly treated with preservatives, it will not rot as quickly as cured white oak heartwood. The closed cell structure of white 0aks prevents them from absorbing preservatives. With northern red oak, one can blow air through an end grain piece 10 inches long to make bubbles come out in a glass of water. These openings give fungus easy access when the finish deteriorates. Shumard oak, a member of the red oak subgenus, provides timber which is described as “mechanically superior” to northern red oak. Cherrybark oak is another type of red oak which provides excellent timber.

The standard for the lumber of the white oak group – all of which is marketed as white oak – is the QuercUs alba. White oak is often used to make wine barrels. The wood of the deciduous pedunculate oak and sessile oak accounts for most of the European oak production, but evergreen species, such as Holm oak and cork oak also produce valuable timber.

The bark of the white oak is dried and used in medical preparations. Oak bark is also rich in tannin, and is used by tanners for tanning leather. Acorns are used for making flour or roasted for acorn coffee.

Oak galls were used for centuries as a main ingredient in iron gall ink, a kind of manuscript ink, harvested at a specific time of year. In Korea, oak bark is used to make shingles for traditional roof construction.

  1. Deciduous

In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous (/dI’sId3ues/) means “falling off at maturity” and “tending to fall off”, in reference to trees and shrubsthat seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, after flowering; and to the shedding of ripe fruit.

Generally, the term deciduous means “the dropping of a part that is no longer needed” and the “falling away [of a part] after its purpose is finished”. In plants, it is the result of natural processes. “Deciduous” has a similar meaning when referring to animal parts, such as deciduous antlers in deer, deciduous teeth (baby teeth) in some mammals (including humans); or decidua, the uterine lining that sheds off after birth.

Wood from deciduous trees is used in a variety of ways in several industries including lumber for furniture, construction and flooring (oak), ornamental, bowling pins and baseball bats (maple) and furniture, cabinets, plywood and paneling (birch).

  1. Pinophyta

The Pinophyta, also known as Coniferophyta or Coniferae, or commonly as conifers, are a division of vascular land plants containing a single extant class, Pinopsida. They are gymnosperms, cone-bearing seed plants. All extant conifers are perennial woody plants with secondary growth. The great majority are trees, though a few are shrubs. Examples include cedars, Douglas firs, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauri, larches, pines, hemlocks, redwoods, spruces, and yews. As of 1998, the division Pinophyta was estimated to contain eight families, 68 genera, and 629 Iiving species.

Although the total number of species is relatively small, conifers are ecologically important. They are the dominant plants over large areas of land, most notably the taiga of the Northern Hemisphere, but also in similar cool climates in mountains further south. Boreal conifers have many wintertime adaptations. The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, help them shed snow. Many of them seasonally alter their biochemistry to make them more resistant to freezing. While tropical rainforests have more biodiversity and turnover, the immense conifer forests of the world represent the largest terrestrial carbon sink. Conifers are of great economic value for softwood lumber and paper production.

  1. Abies pindrow

Abies pindrow, the pindrow fir or west Himalayan fir, is a fir native to the western Himalaya and adjacent mountains, from northeast Afghanistan east through northern Pakistan and India to central Nepal.

Description

It is a large evergreen tree growing to 40-60 meters (130-200 ft) tall, and with a trunk diameter of up to 2-2.5 meters (6 ft7 in-8 ft 2 in). It has a conical crown with level branches. The shoots are grayish-pink to buff-brown, smooth and glabrous (hairless). The leaves are needle-like, among the longest of any fir, 4-9 centimeters (1.6-3.5 in) long, flattened in cross-section, glossy dark green above, with two whitish stomatal bands on the underside; they are arranged spirally on the shoots, but twisted at the base to lie in a flat plane either side of the shoot. The cones are broad cylindrical-conic, 7-14 centimeters (2.8-5.5 in) long and 3-4 centimeters (1.2-1.6 in) broad, dark purple when young, disintegrating when mature to release the seeds 5-7 months after pollination.

The closely related Gamble’s fir occurS in the same area but on somewhat drier sites; it differs in shorter leaves 2-4 cm long with less obvious stomatal bands and arranged more radially round the shoot. The Cones are very similar.

Recent research, however, has shown that Abies gamblei is not related to Abies pindrow. At West Himalayan locations in Himachal state in India visited by members of the Dendrological Atlas team, at around 3000 m the latter species is replaced by Abies gamblei, showing no intermediate forms. Such areas included Churdhar and the upper Sangla Valley at elevations between 3000 and 3400 m where these species have morphologically and ecologically clearly separated. Elevation-wise, pindrow fir occurs between 2,000-3,350 meters (6,560-10,990 ft) (although mostly between 2400 and 3000m) and Abies gamblei from 3,000-3,500 meters (9,800-11,500 ft). Some references of 3,700 meters (12,100 n) naming (in error) “Abies spectabilis” in the western Himalayas, most probably are true for Abies gamblei, but to Confirm this would require further research.

Distribution and habitat

 Pindrow grows at altütudes of 2,400-3,700 meters (7,900-12,100 ft) in forests together with Cedrus deodara, Picea smithiana and Pinus wallichiana typically occupying cooler, moister north-facing slopes.

Uses

The pindrow fir is used to a small extent for timber in its native range. It is occasionally grown as an ornamental tree in large gardens in western Europe, but demands high humidity and rainfall to grow well. The name pindrow derives from the tree’s name in Nepali.

  1. Pinus wallichiana

Pinus wallichiana is a coniferous evergreen tree native to the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush mountains, from eastern Afghanistan east across northern Pakistan and north west India to Yunnan in southwest China. It grows in mountain valleys at altitudes of 1800-4300 m (rarely as low as 1200 m) between 30 m and 50 m in height. It favors a temperate climate with dry winters and wet summers. in Pashto, it is known as Nishtar.

This tree is often known as Bhutan pine, (not to be confused with the recently described Bhutan white pine, Pinus bhutanica, a closely related species). Other names include blue pine, Himalayan pine and Himalayan white pine. In the past, it was also known by the invalid botanic names Pinus griffithii McClelland or “Pinus excelsa” Wall., Pinus chylla Lodd. when the tree became available through the European nursery trade in 1836, nine years after the Danish botanist Nathaniel Wallich (1784 1856) first introduced seeds to England.

The leaves (‘needles’) are in fascicles (bundles) of five and are 12-18 cm long. They are noted for being flexible along their length, and often droop gracefully. The cones are long and slender, 16-32 cm, yelloW- buff when mature, with thin scales; the seeds are 5-6 mm long with a 20-30 mm wing.

Typical habitats are mountain screes and glacier forelands, but it will also form old-growth forests as the primary species or in mixed forests with deodar, birch, spruce, and fir. In some places it reaches the tree line.

Description

Pine is a coniferous evergreen softwood tree of the Pinaceae family, growing up to 12 to 24 m. lts Trunk is deeply furrowed and reaches up to a diameter of 1 m or more at the bottom. For commercial purposes, pine is classified as soft and as hard. The wood of soft pines, like white, sugar and pinon pines are relatively soft. They have close-grained white sapwood which is very thin and white. Pines like Scotch, Corsica, and lobolis have relatively hard timber of dark colour. Their wood is coarse-grained, often thick sapwood and there is a large amount of resin.

Uses

The wood is moderately hard, durable and highly resinous. It is a good firewood but gives off a pungent resinous smoke. It is a commercial source of turpentine which is of superior quality than that of P. roxburghii but is not produced so freely.

It is also a popular tree for planting in parks and large gardens, grown for its attractive foliage and large, decorative cones. It is also valued for its relatively high resistance to air pollution, tolerating this better than some other conifers.

  1. Spruce

A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea /par’ si:e/, a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal (taiga) regions of the Earth. Spruces are large trees, from about 20-60 m (about 60-200 ft) tall when mature, and have whorled branches and conical form. They can be distinguished from other members of the pine family by their needles (leaves), which are four-sided and attached singly to small persistent peg-like structures (pulvini or sterigmata) on the branches, and by their cones (without any protruding bracts), which hang downwards after they are pollinated. The needles are shed when 4-10 years old, leaving the branches rough with the retained pegs. In other similar genera, the branches are fairly smooth.

Spruce are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (moth and butterfly) species, such as the eastern spruce budworm. They are also used by the larvae of gall adelgids (Adelges species).

In the mountains of western Sweden, scientists have found a Norway spruce, nicknamed Old Tjikko, which by reproducing through layering, has reached an age of 9,550 years and is claimed to be the world’s oldest known living tree.

  1. Picea smithiana

Picea smithiana, the morinda spruce or West Himalayan spruce, is a spruce native to the western Himalaya and adjacent mountains, from northeast Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, India to central Nepal. It grows at altitudes of 2,400-3,600 m in forests together with deodar cedar, blue pine and pindrow fir.

Description

Picea smithiana is a large evergreen tree growing to 40-55 m tall (exceptionally to 60 m), and with a trunk diameter of up to 1-2 m. It has a conical crown with level branches and usually pendulous branchlets.

The shoots are pale, buff-brown, and glabrous (hairless). The leaves are needle-like, the longest of any spruce, 3-5 cm long, rhombic in cross-section, mid-green with inconspicuous stomatal lines. The cones are broad cylindrical-conic, 9-16 cm long and 3 cm broad, green when young, maturing buff- brown and opening to 5-6 cm broad 5-7 months after pollination; the scales are stiff and smoothly rounded.

Morinda spruce is a popular ornamental tree in large gardens in western Europe for its attractive pendulous branchlets. It is also grown to a small extent in forestry for timber and paper production, though its slower growth compared to Norway spruce reduces its importance outside of its native range. The name morinda derives from the tree’s name in Nepali.

  1. Taxus wallichiana

Taxus wallichiana, the Himalayan yew, is a species of yew, native to the Himalaya and parts of south- east Africa. The species has a variety of uses in traditional medicine. It is currently classified as endangered by the IUCN.

Distribution and habitat

The species favours a reasonably wide range of habitats, growing in montane, temperate, warm temperate, and tropical submontane to high montane forests which may be deciduous, evergreen, or of mixed character. In forests, it tends to present as a low canopy tree; in open situations it usually forms a large, broadly spreading shrub. Elevation ranges from 900 m to 3,700 m.

Growth

It is a medium-sized evergreen coniferous tree growing to 20 m tall, similar to Taxus baccata and sometimes treated as a subspecies of it. The shoots are green at first, becoming brown after three or four years. The leaves are thin, flat, slightly falcate(sickle-shaped), 1.5-2.7 cm long and 2 mm broad, with a softly mucronate apex; they are arranged spirally on the shoots but twisted at the base to appear in two horizontal ranks on all except for erect lead shoots. It is dioecious, with the male and female cones on separate plants; the seed cone is highly modified, berry-like, with a single scale developing into a soft, juicy red aril 1 cm diameter, containing a single dark brown seed 7 mm long. The pollen cones are globose, 4 mm diameter, produced on the undersides of the shoots in early spring.

Species

Similar plants occurring further east through China to Taiwan, Vietnam and the Philippines are included in Taxus wallichiana as T. wallichiana var. chinensis (Pilger) Florin by some authors, but are more often treated as a separate species Taxus chinensis.

Medicinal uses

The tree has medicinal use in Ayurveda and Tibetan medicine. Taxus wallichiana is also a source of the chemical precursors to the anticancer drug paclitaxel. Taxus wallichiana is used for making tea by the Bhotiya tribal community in the Garhwal Himalaya. The stem bark of this species, which is locally known as thuner, is collected for this purpose. This species is also used as fuelwood by the local communities. In Himachal it is known to be medicine for some types of cancer.

Conservation

The Himalayan yew has been subject to heavy exploitation for its leaves and bark across most of its range through the Himalayas and western China. Declines have been particularly heavy in India and Nepal, with losses of up to 90% having been reported. The degree of exploitation in other locations in its range is less well known, but is also assumed to be serious. The species is currently classified as endangered by the IUCN. It is present in several protected areas, and at least some conservation and propagation measures are underway, with an eye to its commercial value in the medicine trade.

  1. Maple

Acer’erser/ is a genus of trees and shrubs commonly known as maple. The genesis is placed in the family Sapindaceae. There are approximately 128 species, most of which are native to Asia, with a number also appearing in Europe, northern Africa, and North America. Only one species, Acer laurinum, extends to the Southern Hemisphere. The type species of the genus is the sycamore maple, Acer pseudoplatanus, the most common maple species in Europe. The maples have easily recognizable palmate leaves and distinctive winged fruits. The closest relatives of the maples are the horse chestnuts.

  1. Walnut

A walnut is the nut of any tree of the genus Juglans (Family Juglandaceae), particularly the Persian or English walnut, Juglans regia. 

Technicalya walnut is the seed of a drupe or drupaceous nut and thus not a true botanical nut. It is used for food after being processed, while green for pickled walnutsor after full ripening for its nutmeat. Nutmeat of the eastern black walnut from the Juglans nigra is less commercially available, as are butternut nutmeats from Juglans cinerea. 

  1. Aesculus hippocastanum 

Aesculus hippocastanum is a species of flowering plant in the soapberry and lychee family Sapindaceae. It is a large deciduous, synoecious (hermaphroditic flowered) tree, commonly known as horse-chestnut or conker tree.

Description

Aesculus hippocastanum is a large tree, growing to about 39 meters (128 ft) tall with a domed crown of stout branches; on old trees the outer branches are often pendulous with curled-up tips. The leaves are Opposite and palmately compound, with 5-7 leaflets; each leaflet is 13-30 cm long, making the whole leaf up to 60 cm across, with a 7-20 cm petiole. The leaf scars left on twigs after the leaves have fallen have a distinctive horseshoe shape, complete with seven “nails”. The flowers are usually white with a yellow to pink blotch at the base of the petals; they are produced in spring in erect panicles 10-30 cm tall with about 20-50 flowers on each panicle. Its pollen is poisonous for honey bees. Usually only 1-5 fruits develop on each panicle; the shell is a green, spiky capsule containing one (rarely two or three) nut-like seeds called conkers or horse-chestnuts. Each conker is 2-4 cm diameter, glossy nut- brown with a whitish scar at the base.

Etymology

The common name “horse-chestnut” (often unhyphenated) is reported as having originated from the erroneous belief that the tree was a kind of chestnut (though in fact only distantly related). together with the observation that the fruit could help panting horses.

Distribution and habitat

Aesculus hippocastanum is native to a small area in the Pindus Mountains mixed forests and Balkan mixed forests of South East Europe. However, it can be found in many parts of Europe as far north as Gästrikland in Sweden, as well as in many parks and cities in the United States and Canada.

Uses

It is widely cultivated in streets and parks throughout the temperate world, and has been particularly Successful in places like Ireland, the United Kingdom and New Zealand, where they are commonly found in parks, streets and avenues. Cultivation for its spectacular spring floOwers is successful in a wide range of temperate climatic conditions provided summers are not too hot, with trees being grown as far north as Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, the Faroe Islands, Reykjavík, Iceland and Harstad, Norway.

In Britain and Ireland, the seeds are used for the popular children’s game conkers. During the First World War, there was a campaign to ask for everyone (including children) to collect horse-chestnuts and donate them to the government. The conkers were used as a source of starch for fermentation using the Clostridium acetobutylicum method devised by Chaim Weizmann to produce acetone for use as a solvent for the production of cordite, which was then used in military armaments. Weizmann’s process could use any source of starch, but the government chose to ask for conkers to avoid causing starvation by depleting food sources. But conkers were found to be a poor source, and the factory only produced acetone for three months; however, they were collected again in the Second World War for the same reason.

The seeds, especially those that are young and fresh, are slightly poisonous, containing alkaloid saponins and glucosides. Although not dangerous to touch, they cause sickness when eaten; consumed by horses, they can cause tremors and lack of coordination.

Though the seeds are said to repel spiders there is little evidence to support these claims. The presence of saponin may repel insects but it is not clear whether this is effective on spiders.

Horse-chestnuts have been threatened by the leaf-mining moth Cameraria ohridella, whose larvae feed on horse chestnut leaves. The moth was described from North Macedonia where the species was discovered in 1984 but took 18 years to reach Britain.

The flower is the symbol of the city of Kiev, capital of Ukraine. Although the horse-chestnut is sometimes known as the buckeye, this name is generally reserved for the New World members of the genus Aesculus.

In Germany, horse-chestnuts are often found in beer gardens, particularly in Bavaria. Prior to the advent of mechanical refrigeration, brewers would dig cellars for lagering. To further protect the cellars from the summer heat, they would plant chestnut trees, which have spreading, dense canopies but shallow roots which would not intrude on the caverns. The practice of serving beer at these sites evolved into the modern beer garden.

Medical uses

The seed extract standardized to around 20 percent aescin (escin) is used for its venotonic effect, vascular protection, anti-inflammatory and free radical scavenging properties. Primary indication is chronic venous insufficiency. A recent Cochrane Review found the evidence suggests that Horse Chestnut Seed Extract is an efficacious and safe short-term treatment for chronic venous insufficiency, but definitive randomized controlled trials are required to confirm the efficacy.

Aescin reduces fluid leaks to surrounding tissue by reducing both the number and size of membrane pores in the veins.

Safety in medical use

Two preparations are considered; whole horse chestnut extract (whole HCE) and purified B-aescin. Historically, whole HCE has been used both for oral and IV routes (as of 2001). The rate of adverse effects are low, in a large German study, 0.6%, consisting mainly of gastrointestinal symptoms. Dizziness, headache and itching have been reported. One serious safety issue is rare cases of acute anaphylactic reactions, presumably in a context of whole HCE. Purified B-aescin would be expected to have a better safety profile.

Another is the risk of acute renal failure, “when patients, who had undergone cardiac surgery were given high doses of horse chestnut extract i.v. for postoperative oedema. The phenomenon was dose dependent as no alteration in renal function was recorded with 340 yg kg-1, mild renal function impairment developed with 360 pg kg-1 and acute renal failure with 510 ug kg-1”. This almost certainly took place in a context of the whole HCE.

Three clinical trials were performed to assess the effects of aescin on renal function. A total of 83 subjects were studied; 18 healthy volunteers given 10 or 20 mg iv. for 6 days, 40 in-patients with normal renal function given 10 mg iv. two times per day (except two children given 0.2 mg/kg), 12 patients with cerebral oedema and normal renal function given a massive iv. dose on the day of surgery (49.2 + 19.3 mg) and 15.4 +9.4 mg daily for the following 10 days and 13 patients with impaired renal function due to glomerulonephritis or pyelonephritis, who were given 20-25 mg iv. daily for 6 days. “In all studies renal function was monitored daily resorting to the usual tests of renal function: blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine, creatinine clearance, urinalysis. In a selected number of cases para aminohippurate and labeled EDTA clearance were also measured. No signs of development of renal impairment in the patients with normal renal function or of worsening of renal function in the patients with renal impairment were recorded.” It is concluded that aescin has excellent tolerability in a clinical setting.

Raw Horse Chestnut seed, leaf, bark and flower are toxic due to the presence of esculin and should not be ingested. Horse chestnut seed is classified by the FDA as an unsafe herb. The glycoside and saponin constituents are considered toxic.

 Aesculus hippocastanum is used in the pseudoscientific Bach flower remedies. When the buds are used it is referred to as “chestnut bud” and when the flowers are used it is referred to as “white chestnut”.

  1. Hazel

The hazel (Corylus) is a genus of deciduous trees and large shrubs native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere. The genus is usually placed in the birch family Betulaceae, though some botanists split the hazels (with the hornbeams and allied genera) into a separate family Corylaceae. The fruit of the hazel is the hazelnut.

Hazels have simple, rounded leaves with double-serrate margins. The flowers are produced very early in spring before the leaves, and are monoecious, with single-sex catkins, the male catkins are pale yellow and 5-12 cm long, and the female ones are very small and largely concealed in the buds, with only the bright-red, 1-to-3 mm-long styles visible. The fruits are nuts 1-2.5 cm long and 1-2 cm diameter, surrounded by an involucre (husk) which partly to fully enclose the nut.

The shape and structure of the involucre, and also the growth habit (whether a tree or a suckering shrub), are important in the identification of the different species of hazel.

The pollen of hazel species, which are often the cause for allergies in late winter or early spring, can be identified under magnification (600X) by their characteristic granular exines bearing three conspicuous pores.

  1. Corylus ferox

Corylus Ferox, the Himalayan hazelnut or Tibetan hazelnut, is a species of hazel native to the Himalayas of eastern Asia.

Description

The Himalayan hazelnut is a deciduous tree growing to 32 m (105 ft) tall, with a monoecious leaf that can individually be male or female and some can be both sexes. The leaves are rounded or elliptic, 7-12 cm (2-4 in) long and 3-5 cm (1-2 in) broad, with a fine and sharply serrated margin and an often truncated apex. The flowers are wind-pollinated and precocious. The male (pollen) catkins are pendulous with numerous solitary flowers and no perianth, while the female catkins are inconspicuous, 6- 8 scaly buds and perianth adnate.

  1. Rhododendron

Rhododendron /,roude dendren/ (from Ancient Greek póðov rhódon “rose and dévðpov déndron “tree”) is a genus of 1,024 species of woody plants in the heath family (Ericaceae), either evergreen or deciduous, and found mainly in Asia, although it is also widespread throughout the highlands of the Appalachian Mountains of North America. It is the national flower of Nepal as well as the state flower of West Virginia And Washington. Most species have brightly coloured flowers which bloom from late winter through to early summer.

Azaleas make up two subgenera of Rhododendron. They are distinguished from “true” rhododendrons by having only five anthers per flower.

Description

Rhododendron is a genus of shrubs and small to (rarely) large trees, the smallest species growing to 10-100 cm (4-40 in) tall, and the largest, R. protistum var. giganteum, reported to 30 m (100 ft) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged; leaf size can range from 1-2 cm (0.4-0.8 in) to over 50 cm (20 in), exceptionally 100 cm (40 in) in R. sinogrande. They may be either evergreen or deciduous. In some species, the undersides of the leaves are covered with scales (lepidote) or hairs (indumentum). Some of the best known species are noted for their many clusters of large flowers. There are alpine species with small flowers and small leaves, and tropical species such as section Vireya that often grow as epiphytes. Species in this genus may be part of the heath complex in oak-heath forests in eastern North America.

They have frequently been divided based on the presence or absence of scales on the abaxial (lower) leaf surface (lepidote or elepidote). These scales, unique to subgenus Rhododendron, are modified hairs consisting of a polygonal scale attached by a stalk.

Rhododendron are characterized by having inflorescences with scarious (dry) perulae, a chromosome number of x=13, fruitthat has a septicidal capsule, an ovary that is superior (or nearly so), stamens that have no appendages, and agglutinate(clumped) pollen.

Distribution and habitat

Species of the genus Rhododendron are widely distributed between latitudes 80°N and 20°S and are native to areas from North America to Europe, Russia, and Asia, and from Greenland To Queensland, Australia and the Solomon Islands. The centers of diversity are in the Himalayas and Malaysia. with the greatest species diversity in the Sino-Himalayan region, Southwest China and northern Burma, from Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Sikkim, Nagaland to northwestem Yunnan and western Sichuan and southeastern Tibet. Other significant areas of diversity are in the mountains of Korea, Japan and Taiwan. More than 90% of Rhododendron sensu Chamberlain belong to the Asian subgenera Rhododendron, Hymenanthes and section Tsutsui. Of the first two of these, the species are predominantly found in the area of the Himalayas and Southwest China (Sino- Himalayan Region).

The 300 tropical species within the Vireya section of subgenus Rhododendron occupy the Malay archipelago from their presumed Southeast Asian origin to Northern Australia, with 55 known species in Borneo and 164 in New Guinea. The species in New Guinea are native to subalpine moist grasslands at around 3,000 meters above sea level in the Central Highlands. Subgenera Rhododendron and Hymenanthes, together with section Pentanthera of subgenus Pentanthera are also represented to a lesser degree in the Mountainous areas of North America and Western Eurasia. Subgenus Tsutsusi is found in the maritime regions of East Asia (Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and East China), but not in North America or Eurasia.

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